Is 16th Century Spanish Easy to Understand

Attribute of history

"History of Castilian" redirects here. For the history of the Spanish people, run into Spaniards. For the history of the Castilian culture, see culture of Espana.

The language known today as Spanish is derived from a dialect of spoken Latin, which was brought to the Iberian Peninsula by the Romans after their occupation of the peninsula that started in the late 3rd century BC. Influenced by the peninsular hegemony of Al-Andalus in the early on middle ages, Hispano-Romance varieties borrowed substantial dictionary from Arabic. Upon the southward territorial expansion of the Kingdom of Castile, Hispano-Romance norms associated to this polity displaced both Standard arabic and the Mozarabic romance varieties in the conquered territories, even though the resulting speech too assimilated features from the latter in the process.^[ane] The first standard norm of Spanish was brought frontwards in the 13th century past Alfonso X the Wise (who replaced Latin with Spanish every bit language of the administration), probably drawing from the speech of the upper classes of Toledo.^[2] Features associated with the Castilian patterns of Hispano-Romance also spread west and east to the kingdoms of León and Aragón for the remainder of the centre ages, owing to the political prestige achieved past the Kingdom of Castile in the peninsular context and to the lesser literary development of their vernacular norms.^[iii] From the 1560s onward the standard written course followed Madrid's.^[4]

The Spanish linguistic communication expanded overseas in the Early on Modern period in the wake of the Spanish conquests in the Americas (as well every bit the Canary Islands). As well the Caribbean, the colonial administration in the new territories had its chief centres of power located in United mexican states City and Lima, which retained more features from the cardinal peninsular norm than other more than peripheral territories of the Spanish empire, where adoption of patterns from the southern peninsular norm of Seville (the largest city of the Crown in the 16th century and the port linking to the Americas) was more pervasive, even though in other regards the influence from the latter norm (associated to Andalusian Castilian) came to be preponderant in the entire Americas.^[5] Spanish varieties henceforth borrowed influence from Amerindian languages, primarily coming from the Caribbean, the Central-Andean and Mesoamerican regions.^[vi] Today information technology is the official language of 20 countries, as well as an official language of numerous international organizations, including the United Nations.

Principal distinguishing features [edit]

The evolution of Castilian phonology is distinguished from those of other nearby Romance languages (e.thousand. Portuguese, Catalan) by several features:

• diphthongization of Latin stressed brusk E and O in airtight syllables likewise equally open up ( tiempo , puerta vs. Portuguese tempo, porta )
• devoicing and further development of the medieval Spanish sibilants, producing (1) the velar fricative [ten] in words such as caja, howdyjo, gente, and (2)—in many dialects of Spain, including the prestige varieties of Madrid, Toledo, etc.—the interdental [θ] in words such as cinco , hacer, and lazo
• debuccalization and eventual loss of Latin initial /f/ in most contexts, marked in modernistic spelling past the silent ⟨h⟩ of words such as hablar, hilo, hoja (from Latin fabulare , filum , and folia respectively. Besides in Gascon: hilh , huelha)
• early fricativization of palatal /ʎ/ (from Vulgar Latin -LY-, -CL-, -GL-), first into palatal /ʒ/ and ultimately into velar /x/, east.g., filius →hijo, *oc'lu → ojo, * coag'lare → cuajar; cf. Portuguese filho, olho, coalhar)
• development of initial PL-, CL-, FL- into palatal /ʎ/ in many words, east.grand., plorare → llorar, clamare → llamar, flamma → llama; cf. Portuguese chorar, chamar, chama, Catalan plorar, clamar, flama )
• Vulgar Latin initial /j/ (from J-, DY-, G(E)-, Yard(I)-) remains earlier /a/, /e/ and /i/, afterwards disappearing in an unstressed syllable (yace, yeso, helar, enero, echar, hinojo vs. Portuguese jaz, gesso, gelar, janeiro, jeitar, joelho)

The post-obit features are characteristic of Spanish phonology and also of another Ibero-Romance languages, only not the Romance languages as a whole:

• palatalization of Latin -NN- and -LL- into /ɲ/ and /ʎ/ (año, caballo) (besides in Catalan: any , cavall ).
• the phonemic merger of /b/ and /v/, making, for example, the substantive tubo and the verb tuvo phonetically equivalent (in all contexts except those of hypercorrection or spelling pronunciation)^[seven] (also in Galician, Northern European Portuguese and some Catalan and Occitan varieties)
• spirantization of /b/, /d/, and /ɡ/ → [β̞], [ð̞] and [ɣ̞]—not only from original Latin B, D, and One thousand (equally in Sp. probar, sudar, legrandumbre), but besides from Latin P, T, and C (every bit in Sp. sabe, half dozenda, lago) (also in Galician, European Portuguese, Catalan and parts of Occitan)

The Latin system of iv verb conjugations (form classes) is reduced to three in Spanish. The Latin infinitives with the endings -ĀRE, -ĒRE, and -ĪRE get Spanish infinitives in -ar, -er, and -ir respectively. The Latin 3rd conjugation—infinitives catastrophe in -ĔRE—are redistributed between the Spanish -er and -ir classes (e.k. facere → hacer, dicere → decir). Castilian exact morphology continues the use of some Latin synthetic forms that were replaced by analytic ones in spoken French and (partly) Italian (cf. Sp. lavó, Fr. il a lavé), and the Spanish subjunctive mood maintains split up present and past-tense forms.

Spanish syntax provides overt marking for some direct objects (the so-chosen "personal a", come across differential object marking for the full general phenomenon), and uses clitic doubling with indirect objects, in which a "redundant" pronoun (le, les) appears even in the presence of an explicit substantive phrase. (Neither feature occurs in other Western Romance languages,^{[ citation needed ]} merely both are features of Romanaian, with pe < PER corresponding to Spanish a.) With regard to discipline pronouns, Spanish is a pro-drop linguistic communication, meaning that the verb phrase can often stand alone without the apply of a subject pronoun (or a subject noun phrase). Compared to other Romance languages, Spanish has a somewhat freer syntax with relatively fewer restrictions on subject-verb-object give-and-take order.

Due to prolonged language contact with other languages, the Spanish lexicon contains loanwords from Basque, Hispano-Celtic (Celtiberian and Gallaecian), Iberian, Germanic (Gothic), Standard arabic and ethnic languages of the Americas.

Accents—used in Modernistic Castilian to mark the vowel of the stressed syllable in words where stress is not predictable from rules—came into utilize sporadically in the 15th century, and massively in the 16th century. Their employ began to be standardized with the advent of the Spanish Majestic Academy in the 18th century. See too Spanish orthography.

External history [edit]

With the Reconquista in Iberia, diverse Vulgar Latin language groups concluded up mixing (along with Basques). The largest such grouping was the Castilians, whose language became Spanish.

The standard Castilian language is also chosen Castilian in its original variant, and in order to distinguish it from other languages native to parts of Spain, such as Galician, Catalan, Basque, etc. In its primeval documented form, and up through approximately the 15th century, the language is customarily chosen Old Spanish. From approximately the 16th century on, it is called Modernistic Spanish. Castilian of the 16th and 17th centuries is sometimes called "classical" Spanish, referring to the literary accomplishments of that period. Different English and French, it is non customary to speak of a "centre" stage in the development of Castilian.

Origins [edit]

Castilian Spanish originated (subsequently the decline of the Roman Empire) every bit a continuation of spoken Latin in several areas of northern and key Spain. Eventually, the multifariousness spoken in the city of Toledo around the 13th century became the basis for the written standard. With the Reconquista, this northern dialect spread to the southward, where it near entirely replaced or absorbed the local Romance dialects, at the same time every bit information technology borrowed many words from Andalusi Arabic and was influenced by Mozarabic (the Romance speech of Christians living in Moorish territory) and medieval Judaeo-Spanish (Ladino). These languages had vanished in the Iberian Peninsula by the belatedly 16th century.^{[8] [9]}

The prestige of Castile and its language was propagated partly by the exploits of Castilian heroes in the battles of the Reconquista—among them Fernán González and Rodrigo Díaz de Vivar (El Cid)—and by the narrative poems well-nigh them that were recited in Castilian even exterior the original territory of that dialect.^[10]

The "first written Spanish" was traditionally considered to accept appeared in the Glosas Emilianenses located in San Millán de la Cogolla, La Rioja. These are "glosses" (translations of isolated words and phrases in a form more similar Hispanic Romance than Latin) added between the lines of a manuscript that was written earlier in Latin. Present the language of the Glosas Emilianenses is considered to be closer to the Navarro-Aragonese linguistic communication than to Spanish proper. Estimates of their date vary from the late 10th to the early 11th century.^[eleven]

The first steps toward standardization of written Castilian were taken in the 13th century by King Alfonso Ten of Castile, known as Alfonso el Sabio (Alfonso the Wise), in his court in Toledo. He assembled scribes at his court and supervised their writing, in Spanish, of extensive works on history, astronomy, constabulary, and other fields of knowledge.^{[12] [13]}

Antonio de Nebrija wrote the offset grammar of Spanish, Gramática de la lengua castellana, and presented it, in 1492, to Queen Isabella, who is said to have had an early appreciation of the usefulness of the linguistic communication every bit a tool of hegemony, as if anticipating the empire that was about to be founded with the voyages of Columbus.^[14]

Because Old Spanish resembles the modernistic written linguistic communication to a relatively high degree, a reader of Modern Spanish can larn to read medieval documents without much difficulty.

The Spanish Majestic Academy was founded in 1713, largely with the purpose of standardizing the language. The Academy published its starting time dictionary in half-dozen volumes over the menstruum 1726–1739, and its first grammer in 1771,^[15] and it continues to produce new editions of both from time to time. (The Academy's dictionary is now attainable on the Cyberspace.) Today, each of the Spanish-speaking countries has an analogous language academy, and an Clan of Spanish Language Academies was created in 1951.

America [edit]

Beginning in the late fifteenth century, the discovery and colonization of the Americas by Spanish explorers brought the language across the Atlantic and to Mexico, Central America, and western and southern South America.^[sixteen] Under the Castilian Crown, the language was used as a tool for colonization by Spanish soldiers, missionaries, conquistadors, and entrepreneurs. In the coming centuries, their descendants continued to spread the linguistic communication.^[17]

Utilise of the language in the Americas was connected by descendants of the Spaniards: Spanish criollos and Mestizos. After the wars of independence fought by these colonies in the 19th century, the new ruling elites extended their Spanish to the whole population, including the Amerindian majority, to strengthen national unity, and nowadays information technology is the first and official language of the resulting republics, except in very isolated parts of the quondam Spanish colonies.^[18]

In the late 19th century, the nevertheless-Spanish colonies of Cuba and Puerto Rico encouraged more immigrants from Spain, and similarly other Spanish-speaking countries such as Argentina, Uruguay, and to a bottom extent Republic of chile, Colombia, Mexico, Panama and Venezuela, attracted waves of European immigration, Spanish and not-Castilian, in the late 19th and early 20th centuries. There, the countries' big (or sizable minority) population groups of 2nd- and third-generation descendants adopted the Spanish linguistic communication every bit part of their governments' official assimilation policies to include Europeans. In some countries, they had to be Catholics and agreed to take an oath of allegiance to their chosen nation'south government.

When Puerto Rico became a possession of the United States every bit a issue of the Spanish–American State of war, its population—almost entirely of Castilian and mixed Afro-Caribbean/Spanish (mulatto and mestizo) descent—retained its inherited Spanish language as a mother natural language, in co-existence with the American-imposed English as co-official. In the 20th century, more than than a million Puerto Ricans migrated to the mainland U.Due south. (come across Puerto Ricans in the United States).

A similar situation occurred in the American Southwest, including California, Arizona, New Mexico and Texas, where Spaniards, then criollos (Tejanos, Californios, etc.) followed by Chicanos (Mexican Americans) and subsequently Mexican immigrants, kept the Spanish linguistic communication live before, during and after the American cribbing of those territories following the Mexican–American War. Castilian continues to be used by millions of citizens and immigrants to the United States from Castilian-speaking countries of the Americas (for case, many Cubans arrived in Miami, Florida, commencement with the Cuban Revolution in 1959, and followed by other Latin American groups; the local majority is now Castilian-speaking). Spanish is now treated as the country'southward "second language," and over 5 percentage of the U.Due south. population are Spanish-speaking, simply almost Latino/Hispanic Americans are bilingual or also regularly speak English.

Africa [edit]

The presence of Spanish in Equatorial Guinea dates from the late 18th century, and information technology was adopted equally the official linguistic communication when independence was granted in 1968.

Spanish is widely spoken in Western Sahara, which was a protectorate/colony of Spain from the 1880s to the 1970s.

Judaeo-Spanish [edit]

In 1492 Spain expelled its Jewish population. Their Judaeo-Spanish linguistic communication, called Ladino, developed forth its own lines and continues to be spoken by a dwindling number of speakers, mainly in State of israel, Turkey, and Greece.^{[xix] [20]}

In the Pacific [edit]

In the Marianas, the Spanish linguistic communication was retained until the Pacific War, but is no longer spoken there by whatsoever pregnant number of people. Equally function of Republic of chile since 1888, Spanish is spoken past well-nigh people in Easter Island forth with Rapa Nui language.

Kingdom of spain [edit]

Language politics in Francoist Spain declared Spanish as the only official language in Spain, and to this 24-hour interval it is the most widely used linguistic communication in government, concern, public education, the workplace, cultural arts, and the media. But in the 1960s and 1970s,^{[ commendation needed ]} the Spanish parliament agreed to let provinces to use, speak, and print official documents in three other languages: Catalan for Catalonia, Balearic Islands and Valencia; Basque for the Basque provinces and Navarre, and Galician for Galicia. Since 1975, following the death of Franco, Spain has get a multi-party democracy and decentralized country, constituted in autonomous communities. Under this system, some languages of Spain—such as Aranese (an Occitan linguistic communication of northwestern Catalonia), Basque, Catalan/Valencian, and Galician—have gained co-official status in their respective geographical areas. Others—such every bit Aragonese, Astur and Leonese—have been recognized past regional governments.

International project [edit]

When the Un organisation was founded in 1945, Spanish was designated i of its five official languages (along with Chinese, English language, French, and Russian; a sixth language, Standard arabic, was added in 1973).

The list of Nobel laureates in Literature includes eleven authors who wrote in Spanish (José Echegaray, Jacinto Benavente, Gabriela Mistral, Juan Ramón Jiménez, Miguel Ángel Asturias, Pablo Neruda, Vicente Aleixandre, Gabriel García Márquez, Camilo José Cela, Octavio Paz, and Mario Vargas Llosa).

Influences [edit]

The mention of "influences" on the Castilian language refers primarily to lexical borrowing. Throughout its history, Spanish has accepted loanwords, get-go from pre-Roman languages (including Basque, Iberian, Celtiberian and Gallaecian), and later from Greek, from Germanic languages, from Arabic, from neighboring Romance languages, from Native American languages^{[ citation needed ]}, and from English language.

The nearly frequently used give-and-take that entered Spanish from (or through^[21]) Basque is izquierda "left".^[22] Basque is perhaps about evident in some common Spanish surnames, including García and Echeverría. Basque place names too are prominent throughout Spain, because many Castilians who took role in the Reconquista and repopulation of Moorish Iberia by Christians were of Basque lineage. Iberian and Celtiberian likewise are thought to have contributed place names to Spain. Words of everyday use that are attributed to Celtic sources include camino "route", carro "cart", colmena "hive", and cerveza "beer".^[23] Suffixes such every bit -iego: mujeriego "womanizer" and -ego: gallego "Galician" are also attributed to Celtic sources.

Influence of Basque phonology is credited by some researchers with softening the Castilian labiodentals: turning labiodental [five] to bilabial [β], and ultimately deleting labiodental [f]. Others negate or downplay Basque phonological influence, claiming that these changes occurred in the affected dialects wholly as a result of factors internal to the linguistic communication, not outside influence.^[24] It is also possible that the two forces, internal and external, worked in concert and reinforced each other.

Some words of Greek origin were already nowadays in the spoken Latin that became Spanish. Additionally, many Greek words formed part of the language of the Church. Spanish also borrowed Ancient Greek vocabulary in the areas of medical, technical, and scientific language, offset as early as the 13th century.^[25]

The influence of Germanic languages is very piddling on phonological development, but rather is establish mainly in the Spanish lexicon. Words of Germanic origin are common in all varieties of Spanish. The modernistic words for the cardinal directions (norte, este, sur, oeste), for example, are all taken from Germanic words (compare northward, due east, s and west in Modern English language), afterwards the contact with Atlantic sailors. These words did not exist in Spanish prior to the 15th century. Instead, "north" and "south" were septentrion and meridion ^{[ citation needed ]} respectively (both almost obsolete in Modern Spanish as nouns, dissimilar their non uncommon adjectival counterparts septentrional and meridional), while "east" was oriente (or levante), and "west" was occidente (or poniente). These older words for "due east" and "westward" proceed to have some employ in Mod Spanish.

In 711 the Iberian Peninsula was invaded by Moors, who brought in the Arabic linguistic communication. For about viii hundred years, until the autumn of the Emirate of Granada (1492), Castilian borrowed thousands of words from Andalusi Standard arabic, such as alcalde "mayor", álgebra "algebra", aceite "oil", zanahoria "carrot", alquiler "rent", achacar "to arraign", adelfa "oleander", barrio "neighbourhood", chaleco "vest", to proper name just a few; making up viii% of the Spanish dictionary—the 2d largest lexical influence on Spanish afterward Latin.^{[26] [27] [28]} It is thought that the bilingualism of the Mozarabs facilitated the large transfer of vocabulary from Arabic to Castilian.^[29]

The neighboring Romance languages—such equally Galician/Portuguese, Catalan, French, and Occitan—contributed greatly to the Spanish dictionary throughout the Middle Ages and into the modern era.^[30] Borrowing from Italian occurred most oft in the 16th and 17th centuries, due largely to the influence of the Italian Renaissance.^[31]

The creation of the Spanish Empire in the New World led to lexical borrowing from indigenous languages of the Americas, especially vocabulary dealing with flora, fauna, and cultural concepts unique to the Americas.^[32]

Borrowing from English language has become especially strong, beginning in the 20th century, with words borrowed from many fields of action, including sports, technology, and commerce.^[33]

The incorporation into Spanish of learned, or "bookish" words from its ain antecedent linguistic communication, Latin, is arguably another course of lexical borrowing through the influence of written language and the liturgical language of the Church. Throughout the Middle Ages and into the early mod menstruum, most literate Castilian-speakers were also literate in Latin; and thus they easily adopted Latin words into their writing—and eventually speech—in Spanish. The form of Latin that Spaniards spoke and the loanwords came from was Classical Latin, only also Renaissance Latin, the grade of Latin used in original works of the time.

Internal history [edit]

Spanish shares with other Romance languages most of the phonological and grammatical changes that characterized Vulgar Latin, such as the abandonment of distinctive vowel length, the loss of the case system for nouns, and the loss of deponent verbs.

Syncope [edit]

Syncope in the history of Spanish refers to the loss of an unstressed vowel from the syllable immediately preceding or following the stressed syllable. Early on in its history, Castilian lost such vowels where they preceded or followed R or L, and betwixt S and T.^{[34] [35] [36]}

Early syncope in Spanish

Environs	Latin words	Spanish words
_r	aperīre, humerum, litteram,[37] operam, honorāre	abrir, hombro, letra, obra, honrar
r_	eremum, viridem	yermo, verde
_l	acūculam, fabulam, insulam, populum	aguja, habla, isla, pueblo
l_	sōlitārium	soltero
s_t	positum, consūtūram	puesto, costura

*Solitario, which is derived from sōlitārium, is a learned discussion; cf. the alternate course soltero. As also "fábula" from "fabulam", although this concluding one has a different meaning in Castilian.

Later, after the fourth dimension of intervocalic voicing, unstressed vowels were lost between other combinations of consonants:

Afterward syncope in Castilian

Environment	Latin words	Spanish words
b_t	cubistomach, dēbitam, dūbitam	codo, deuda, duda
c_m, c_p, c_t	decimum, acceastwardptōre, recitāre	diezmo, azor, rezar
d_c	undecim, vindicāre	in one case, vengar
f_c	advērificāre	averiguar
m_c, m_n, m_t	hāmiceolum, hominem, comitem	anzuelo, hombre, conde
n_c, n_t	dominicum, bonitāte, cuminitiāre	domingo, bondad, comenzar
p_t	capitālem, computāre, hospitālem	caudal, contar, hostal
s_c, s_n	quassicāre, rassicāre, equallyinum, fraxinum	cascar, rascar, asno, fresno
t_c, t_n	masticāre, portaticum, trīticum, retinam	mascar/masticar, portazgo, trigo, rienda

Words capital, computar, hospital, recitar and vindicar are learned words; cf. capitālem, computāre, hospitālem, recitāre, and vindicāre and alternate forms caudal, contar, hostal, rezar, and vengar.

Elision [edit]

While voiceless intervocalic consonants regularly became voiced, many voiced intervocalic stops (d, one thousand, and occasionally b) were dropped from words altogether through a process called elision.^{[38] [39]} Latin /b/ between vowels usually changed to /v/ in Old Spanish (e.1000. habēre > aver), while Latin /p/ became /b/ (sapere > saber). In mod times the 2 phonemes merged into /b/ (haber, saber), realized as [β] betwixt vowels (see Betacism). Latin voiced stops—/b/, /d/, and /ɡ/, which are represented orthographically as B, D, and One thousand respectively—and also occurred in intervocalic positions also underwent lenition: [β], [ð], and [ɣ], but appeared in Spanish also through learned words from Classical Latin.

Examples of elision in Castilian

Consonant	Latin word	Spanish word
b → ∅	vendēbat	vendía
d → ∅	come updere, half-dozendēre, hodie, cadēre, pedeastward, quō modō	comer, ver, hoy, caer, pie, cómo
k → ∅	cōgitāre, digitum, legere, lione thousandāre, lēgāle	cuidar, dedo, leer, liar, leal

Many forms with d and chiliad preserved, e.g. ligar, legal, crudo, are learned words (Latinisms); cf. the alternate forms liar, leal and Old Castilian cruo and its Latin origin crūdus.

Voicing and spirantization [edit]

In about all the Western Romance languages, the Latin voiceless stops—/p/, /t/, and /chiliad/, which are represented orthographically every bit P, T, and C (including Q) respectively—where they occurred in an "intervocalic" environment (qualified below), underwent i, 2, or three successive stages of lenition, from voicing to spirantization to, in some cases, elision (deletion). In Castilian these iii consonants generally undergo both voicing and spirantization, resulting in voiced fricatives: [β], [ð], and [ɣ], respectively.^{[twoscore] [41]} Although it was once speculated that this alter came about as a transfer of phonological features from substrate Celtic and Basque languages, which were in geographical proximity to Iberian Vulgar Latin (see Sprachbund), information technology is now widely recognized that such change is a natural internal development.^{[42] [43]} Intervocalic /p/, /t/, and /thousand/ reappeared in Spanish through learned words from Classical Latin and also appeared in Castilian through consonant cluster simplification from Vulgar Latin (see below), and Latin voiced stops—/b/, /d/, and /ɡ/, which are represented orthographically equally B, D, and Chiliad respectively—and also occurred in intervocalic positions also underwent lenition: [β], [ð], and [ɣ], but appeared in Spanish also through learned words from Classical Latin and likewise appeared in Castilian through consonant cluster simplification from Vulgar Latin.

The phonological environment of these changes is not only between vowels but too after a vowel and before a sonorant consonant such as /r/ (Latin patrem > Spanish padre)—but not the reverse (Latin partem > Spanish parte, not *parde).

Examples of voicing and spirantization in Spanish

Consonants	Latin discussion	Castilian give-and-take
p → b [β]	aperīre, cooperīre, lupum, operam, populum, capram, superāre1	abrir [aˈβɾir], cubrir [kuˈβɾir], lobo [ˈloβo], obra [ˈoβɾa], pueblo [ˈpweβlo], cabra [ˈkaβɾa], sobrar [soβˈɾar]
t → d [ð]	cīvitātem, cubitum, latum, mūtāre, scūtum, stātunited states, petram	ciudad [θjuˈðað], codo [ˈkoðo], lado [ˈlaðo], mudar [muˈðar], escudo [esˈkuðo], estado [esˈtaðo], piedra [ˈpjeðra]
c → thou [ɣ]	focum, lacum, locum, pacāre, sacrātum, aqua	fuego [ˈfweɣo], lago [ˈlaɣo], luego [ˈlweɣo], pagar [paˈɣar], sagrandrado [saˈɣɾaðo], agua [ˈaɣwa]

¹Latin superāre produced both sobrar and its learned doublet superar.

The verb decir, in its various conjugated forms, exemplifies dissimilar phonetic changes, depending on whether the letter of the alphabet <c> (Latin /k/) was followed by a front end vowel or not. The Latin /one thousand/ changes ultimately to Spanish /θ/ when followed by the front end vowels (/i/ or /e/—thus dice, decimos, etc.), but in other forms, before a back vowel, /1000/ is voiced to /ɡ/ and, in the mod linguistic communication, realized as a spirant [ɣ] (every bit in digo, diga). This too is the pattern of a few other Spanish verbs ending in -cer or -cir, as in the table beneath:

Forms with /k/ → /θ/,/s/ (before front end vowels)			Forms with /k/ → /ɡ/ (before back vowels)
English	Latin	Castilian	English	Latin	Castilian
To say, to tell It says, it tells	dīcere /ˈdiːkere/ dīcit /ˈdiːkit/	decir /deˈθiɾ/,/deˈsiɾ/ dice /ˈdiθe/,/ˈdise/	I say, I tell May it tell	dīcō /ˈdiːkoː/ dīcat /ˈdiːkat/	digo /ˈdiɡo/ diga /ˈdiɡa/
To practise, to make Information technology does, it makes	facere /ˈfakere/ facit /ˈfakit/	hacer /aˈθeɾ/,/aˈseɾ/ hace /ˈaθe/,/ˈase/	I do, I brand May it make	faciō > *facō /ˈfakoː/ faciat > *facat /ˈfakat/	hago /ˈaɡo/ haga /ˈaɡa/

Diphthongization in open and closed syllables [edit]

It is ordinarily thought that the reflexes of stressed short E and O of Latin were realised, after the loss of phonemic quantity, as the low-mid vowels /ɛ/ and /ɔ/ respectively in the Western Romance languages, contrasting with close-mid /e/ and /o/, which would have originated from the mergers between long E and curt I and between long O and brusque U, respectively; this change would explicate the similarity of the vowel systems in modern Romance languages such as Portuguese, Catalan and Italian. These low-mid vowels subsequently would have undergone diphthongization in many of the Western Romance languages. In Spanish this change occurs regardless of syllable shape (open or closed), in contrast to French and Italian, where information technology takes place only in open syllables, and in greater contrast to Portuguese where this diphthongization does non occur at all. As a result, Spanish phonology exhibits a five-vowel arrangement, not the vii-vowel system that is typical of many other Western Romance languages.^{[44] [45] [46]} The stressed brusk [due east] and [o] reappeared in Spanish through learned words from Classical Latin and as well evolved from short vowels /i/ and /u/ from Vulgar Latin, and was retained from long vowels [eː] and [oː] from Vulgar Latin.

Castilian diphthongization in open and airtight syllables

Syllable shape	Latin	Spanish	French	Italian	Portuguese	Catalan
Open	peastwardtram, focus	piedra, fuego	pierre, feu	pietra, fuoco	pedra, fogo	pedra, foc
Closed	festa, porta	fiesta, puerta	fête, porte	festa, porta	festa, porta	festa, porta

Learned words and consonant cluster simplification [edit]

Learned words—that is, "bookish" words transmitted partly through writing and thus affected past their Latin grade—became increasingly frequent with the works of Alfonso 10 in the mid-to-late 13th century. Many of these words independent consonant clusters which, in oral transmission, had been reduced to simpler consonant clusters or unmarried consonants in previous centuries. This same process affected many of these new, more than academic, words, especially when the words extended into popular usage in the Old Spanish period. Some of the consonant clusters afflicted were -ct-, -ct[i]-, -pt-, -gn-, -mn-, -mpt-, and -nct-. Most of the simplified forms accept since reverted to the learned forms or are now considered to be uneducated.^[47]

Reduction of consonant clusters

Consonant cluster	Latin form	Learned course	Onetime Castilian form	Modern Spanish class
ct → t	effectum, perfectum, respectum, aspectum, dīstrīctus, sectam	efecto, perfecto, respecto, aspecto, districto, secta	efeto, perfeto, respeto, aspeto, distrito, seta,	efecto, perfecto, respeto/respecto, aspecto, distrito, secta
ct[i] → cc[i] → c[i]	affectiōnem, lectiōnem, perfectiōnem	affección, lección, perfección	afición, lición, perfeción	afición/afección, lección, perfección
pt → t	acceptāre, baptismum, conceptum	aceptar, baptismo, concepto	acetar, bautismo, conceto	aceptar, bautismo, concepto
gn → n	dīgnum, magnīficum, signīficāre	digno, magnífico, significar	dino, manífigo, sinifigar	digno, magnífico, significar
mn → n	columnam, solemnitātem, alūmnunited states	columna, solemnidad, alumno	colunortha, solenidad, aludue northo	columna, solemnidad, alumno
mpt → nt	promptum, exemptum	prompto, exempto	pronto, exento	pronto, exento
nct → nt	sanctunited states, distīnctum	sancto, distincto	santo, distinto	santo, distinto

Most of these words have modern forms which more closely resemble Latin than One-time Spanish. In Old Spanish, the simplified forms were acceptable forms which were in coexistence (and sometimes competition) with the learned forms. The Castilian educational organization, and later the Real Academia Española, with their demand that all consonants of a word be pronounced, steadily drove most simplified forms from being. Many of the simplified forms were used in literary works in the Heart Ages and Renaissance (sometimes intentionally as an archaism), but have since been relegated more often than not to popular and uneducated speech. Occasionally, both forms exist in Modern Castilian with different meanings or in idiomatic usage: for instance afición is a 'fondness (of)' or 'gustation (for)', while afección is 'disease'; Modern Spanish respeto is '(attitude of) respect', while con respecto a ways 'with regard to'.

About words with consonant clusters in syllable-final position are loanwords from Classical Latin, examples are: transporte [tɾansˈpor.te], transmitir [tɾanz.miˈtir], instalar [ins.taˈlar], constante [konsˈtante], obstante [oβsˈtante], obstruir [oβsˈtɾwir], perspectiva [pers.pekˈti.βa], istmo [ˈist.mo]. A syllable-final position cannot be more than one consonant (one of n, r, l, southward or z) in almost (or all) dialects in colloquial speech, reflecting Vulgar Latin groundwork. Realizations like [trasˈpor.te], [tɾaz.miˈtir], [is.taˈlar], [kosˈtante], [osˈtante], [osˈtɾwir], and [ˈiz.mo] are very common, and in many cases, they are considered acceptable even in formal speech.

Another type of consonant cluster simplification involves "double" (geminate) plosives that reduced to single: -pp-, -tt-, -cc-, -bb-, -dd-, -gg- /pː, tː, kː, bː, dː, gː/ > -p-, -t-, -c-, -b-, -d-, -m- /p, t, 1000, b, d, g/. The simplified Spanish outcomes of the Latin voiced series -bb-, -dd-, -gg- /bː, dː, gː/ remain voiced, inducing phonemic merger with intervocalic /b/, /d/, /g/ that issued from voicing of Latin /p/, /t/, /k/, then that all are subject to the same phonetic realization every bit voiced fricatives: [β], [ð], and [ɣ], respectively.

Simplification of double plosives in Spanish

Consonant	Latin word	Spanish word
bb [bː] → b [β]	ABBĀTEM	abad
dd [dː] → d [ð]	IN + ADDERE, ADDICTUS, ADDICTIŌNEM	añadir, adicto, adicción
gg [gː] → one thousand [ɣ]	AGGRAVARE	agravar
pp [pː] → p [p]	CUPPAM, CIPPUnited states of america	copa, cepo
tt [tː] → t [t]	CATTUM, GUTTAM, QUATTUOR, LITTERAM	gato, getta, cuatro, letra
cc [kː] → c [grand]	VACCAM, PECCĀRE, SICCUnited states of america	vaca, pecar, seco

Voice [edit]

The term "vocalization" refers to the alter from a consonant to the vowel-like sound of a glide. Some syllable-last consonants, regardless of whether they were already syllable-terminal in Latin or brought into that position by syncope, became glides. Labials (b, p, five) yielded the rounded glide [west] (which was in turn absorbed by a preceding round vowel), while the velar c ([k]) produced the palatal glide [j] (which could palatalize a following [t] and be absorbed by the resulting palatal affricate). (The forms debda, cobdo, and dubdar are documented in Quondam Spanish; simply the hypothetical forms *oito and *noite had already given way to ocho and noche by the time Castilian became a written language.)^{[48] [49] [fifty]}

Syllable-final vocalization

Change	Latin discussion	Intermediate course	Spanish discussion
p → w	baptistam, capitālem	(none for baptistam), cabdal	bautista, caudal
b → w	dēbitam	debda	deuda
b → west → Ø	cubitum, dubitāre	cobdo, dubdar	codo, dudar
v → w	cīvitātem	cibdad	ciudad
ct → ch	octō, nōctem	*oito, *noite	ocho, noche

Betacism [edit]

Most Romance languages accept maintained the distinction between a phoneme /b/ and a phoneme /v/: a voiced bilabial stop and a voiced, usually labiodental, fricative, respectively. Instances of the /b/ phoneme could exist inherited directly from Latin /b/ (unless between vowels), or they could result from the voicing of Latin /p/ between vowels. The /v/ phoneme was generally derived either from an allophone of Latin /b/ betwixt vowels or from the Latin phoneme respective to the letter ⟨v⟩ (pronounced [west] in Classical Latin but subsequently fortified to the condition of a fricative consonant in Vulgar Latin). In near Romance-speaking regions, /v/ had labiodental joint, but in Old Castilian, which still distinguished /b/ and /v/, the latter was probably realized equally a bilabial fricative [β]. The contrast betwixt the two phonemes was neutralized in certain environments, as the fricative [β] also occurred as an allophone of /b/ between vowels, after a vowel, and later certain consonants in Old Castilian.^[51] The similarity betwixt the stop [b] and fricative [β] resulted in their consummate merger by the end of the Old Castilian period (16th century).^[52] In Modern Castilian, the messages ⟨b⟩ and ⟨5⟩ correspond the same phoneme (usually treated as /b/ in phonemic transcription), which is more often than not realized as the fricative [β] except when utterance-initial or after a nasal consonant, when it is realized equally the finish [b]. The same situation prevails in northern Portuguese dialects and in Galician, but the other Portuguese dialects maintain the distinction. The merger of /b/ and /v/ also occurs in Standard Catalan in eastern Catalonia, but the distinction is retained in almost varieties of Valencian and in some areas in southern Catalonia, in the Balearic dialect, as well as in Algherese.

In Modernistic Spanish, from the 16th century onward, the choice of orthographic ⟨b⟩ or ⟨v⟩ depends mainly on the etymology of the word. The orthography attempts to mimic the Latin spelling, rather than to go along the pronunciation-based spelling of Former Spanish.^[7] Thus, Onetime Spanish bever "to beverage", bivir/vivir "to live" become beber, vivir, respectively, following the Latin spelling bibere, vīvere. The Spanish placename Córdoba, often spelled Cordova in Old Spanish (the spelling that prevailed in English language until the 20th century), now reflects the spelling used by the city's Roman founders, "Corduba".

Latin f- to Spanish h- to null [edit]

F was almost always initial in Latin words, and in Spanish most of them passed through a stage in which the consonant eventually developed to [h] and and then was lost phonologically. Spelling conventions accept grapheme ⟨h⟩ used in words such as humo 'smoke', hormiga 'ant', hígado 'liver' (compare Italian fumo, formica, fegato, with /f/ intact), but in terms of both construction and pronunciation, the initial consonant has been lost: /ˈumo/, /orˈmiɡa/, /ˈiɡado/. It is idea that ⟨f⟩ represented the labiodental [f] in Latin, which underwent a series of lenitions to become, successively, bilabial [ɸ] and and so glottal [h] (hence the modern spelling), and information technology was then lost altogether in about varieties; ⟨h⟩ is assumed to accept been "silent" in Vulgar Latin. The first written evidence of the procedure dates from 863, when the Latin proper noun Forticius was written every bit Ortiço, which might have been pronounced with initial [h] but certainly not [f]. (The same name appears equally Hortiço in a document from 927.) The replacement of ⟨f⟩ by ⟨h⟩ in spelling is not frequent before the 16th century, merely that is thought non to reflect preservation of /f/. Rather, ⟨f⟩ was consistently used to stand for /h/ until the phoneme /f/ reappeared in the language (around the 16th century, as a issue of loanwords from Classical Latin). Then, information technology became necessary to distinguish both phonemes in spelling.

The change from /f/ to /h/ occurred in the Romance speech of Old Castile and Gascon, but nowhere else nearby. Since both areas were historically bilingual with Basque, and Basque once had [h] merely no [f], it is often suggested that the change was caused by Basque influence. However, this is contested by many linguists.

Most current instances of ⟨f⟩ are either learned words (those influenced by their written Latin form, such every bit forma, falso, fama, feria), loanwords of Arabic and Greek origin, or words whose initial ⟨f⟩ in Quondam Spanish is followed by a non-vowel (⟨r⟩, ⟨fifty⟩, or the glide element of a diphthong), equally in frente, flor, fiesta, fuerte.^{[53] [54] [55]} That, along with the effect of preservation of /f/ regionally (Astur-leonese fumu 'smoke', formiga 'emmet', fégadu 'liver'), accounts for modern doublets such as Fernando (learned) and Hernando (inherited) (both Spanish for "Ferdinand"), fierro (regional) and hierro (both "fe"), and fondo and hondo (fondo means "bottom" and hondo means "deep"). Also, hacer ("to make") is the rootword of satisfacer ("to satisfy"), and hecho ("made") is the rootword of satisfecho ("satisfied").

Examples of Latin 'f-' to Castilian 'h-'

Consonants	Latin word	Old Castilian form	Modern Spanish discussion
f- → h-	fabulāri, facere, faciendam, factum, faminem, farīnam, fēminam, fīcatum, fīlium, folia, fōrmōsum, fūmum, fungum, furcam	fablar, fazer, fazienda, feito, fambre, farina, fembra, fígado, fijo, foja, formoso, fumo, fongo, forca	hablar, hacer, hacienda, hrepeat, hambre, harina, hembra, hígado, hijo, hoja, hermoso, humo, hongo, horca

Fabulāri is translated as "make stories", opposed to its Castilian derivative hablar which means "speak" or "to talk".

Silent Latin h- [edit]

'H' is originally pronounced in Classical Latin, but became silent in Vulgar Latin. Thus, words were spelled without any such consonant in Old Castilian; in Modern Castilian, from the 16th century onward, it attempts to mimic the Latin spelling rather than continue Old Spanish orthography.

Examples

Consonants	Latin discussion	One-time Spanish form	Mod Spanish word
h- → ∅ → h-	habēbat, habēre, habuī, hodiē, hominem, honorāre, hospitālem, humerum	avié; aver; ove; oy; omne, omre, ombre; onrar; ostal; ombro	había, haber, hube, hoy, hombre, honrar, hostal/hospital, hombro

Modern development of the Erstwhile Spanish sibilants [edit]

During the 16th century, the three voiced sibilant phonemes—dental /d͡z/, apico-alveolar /z/, and palato-alveolar /ʒ/ (as in Sometime Castilian fazer, casa, and ojo, respectively) lost their voicing and merged with their voiceless counterparts: /t͡s/, /s/, and /ʃ/ (as in caçar, passar, and baxar respectively). The graphic symbol ⟨ç⟩, chosen ⟨c⟩ cedilla, originated in Old Castilian^[56] but has been replaced by ⟨z⟩ in the modern linguistic communication.

Additionally, the affricate /t͡s/ lost its terminate component, to get a laminodental fricative, [s̪].^[57] As a result, the sound system then independent two sibilant fricative phonemes whose contrast depended entirely on a subtle distinction between their places of articulation: apicoalveolar, in the case of the /s/, and laminodental, in the case of the new fricative sibilant /s̪/, which was derived from the affricate /t͡s/. The distinction between the sounds grew in the dialects of northern and central Kingdom of spain by paradigmatic dissimilation, but dialects in Andalusia and the Americas merged both sounds.

The dissimilation in the northern and central dialects occurred with the laminodental fricative moving forward to an interdental place of articulation, losing its sibilance to become [θ]. The sound is represented in modern spelling by ⟨c⟩ before ⟨e⟩ or ⟨i⟩ and by ⟨z⟩ elsewhere. In the southward of Spain, the deaffrication of /t͡s/ resulted in a directly merger with /s/, every bit both were homorganic,^{[ citation needed ]}, and the new phoneme became either laminodental [s̪] ("seseo", in the Americas and parts of Andalusia) or [θ] ("ceceo", in a few parts of Andalusia). In general, coastal regions of Andalusia preferred [θ], and more inland regions preferred [s̪] (run into the map at ceceo).

During the colonization of the Americas, most settlers came from the south of Spain; that is the cause, according to nearly all scholars, for nearly all Spanish-speakers in the New World still speaking a language variety derived largely from the Western Andalusian and Canarian dialects.

Meanwhile, the alveopalatal fricative /ʃ/, the result of the merger of voiceless /ʃ/ (spelled ⟨x⟩ in Old Spanish) with voiced /ʒ/ (spelled with ⟨j⟩ in some words and in others with ⟨g⟩ earlier ⟨e⟩ or ⟨i⟩), was moved backwards in all dialects, to go (depending on geographical diverseness) velar [x], uvular [χ] (in parts of Spain) or glottal [h] (in Andalusia, Canary Islands, and parts of the Americas, especially the Caribbean region). ^{[58] [59]}

Interchange of the liquids /l/ and /r/ [edit]

One unusual characteristic of Castilian etymology is the way in which the liquids /r/ and /fifty/ have sometimes replaced each other in words derived from Latin, French and other sources. For example, Spanish milagro, "miracle", is derived from Latin miraculum. More rarely, this process has involved consonants similar /d/ and /n/ (as in alma, from Latin anima). Here is an incomplete list of such words:

• ancla, "anchor", Latin ancora
• albedrío, "will, whim, fancy", Latin arbitrium, "judgment, decision, will" (arbitrio is a learned form, i.due east.: loanword from Classical Latin)
• algalia, "catheter", Aboriginal Greek: ἐργαλεία ergaleía, "tools"
• alimaña, "pest", Latin, animalĭa, "animals"
• alma, "soul", Latin anima
• alondra, "lark", Latin alaudula
• altramuz, "lupin", Hispanic Arabic at-tarmūs
• árbol, "tree", Latin arbor
• Argelia, "Algeria (nation)"
• azufre, sulfur, Latin sulphur
• azul, "blueish", Arabic: لازورد lāzaward "lapis lazuli" (cf. medieval Latin azura, French azure)
• blandir, "to brandish", French brandir
• bolsa, "bag, purse", Latin bursa
• cárcel, "prison", Latin carcer (cf. English "incarcerate")
• calambre, "cramp, electric shock", French crampe
• Catalina, Latin Catharina (proper name; Catarina is a learned grade; i.eastward. loanword from Classical Latin)
• chaflán, "chamfer", French chanfrein.
• cilantro, "coriander", Latin coriandrum
• cimbrar, "shake (a stick), sway, swish", Latin cymula, "sprout, shoot (of plant)"
• coronel, "colonel", French colonel, from Italian colonnello
• Cristóbal, Germanic Christoffer, from Latin Christopherus (proper name)
• cuartel, "quarter", French quartier
• dintel, "lintel", Onetime French lintel
• escolta, "escort", Italian scorta
• espuela, "spur", Gothic *spaúra (cf. French éperon)
• estrella, "star", from Latin stella (cf. Italian stella, French étoile)
• flete, "freight, cargo", French fret
• fraile, "friar", Provençal fraire, from Latin frater, "brother"
• franela, "flannel", French flanelle
• frasco, "flask", Germanic flasko
• guirnalda, "garland", older Castilian guirlanda, cf. French guirlande
• golondrina, "eat (bird)", Latin hirundo
• lirio, "lily, iris", Latin lilium
• mármol, "marble", Latin marmor
• miércoles, "Wednesday", Latin Mercuri [dies], "Mercury's [day]"
• milagro, "miracle", Latin miraculum
• nivel, "level", Latin libellum, "footling residue", from libra, "residue"
• olor, "scent, olfactory property", Latin odor
• papel, "paper", Catalan paper, Latin papyrus
• palabra, "word", Latin parabola
• peligro, "danger", Latin periculum (cf. English language "peril")
• plática, "chat, conversation", Latin practica
• quilate, "carat", Standard arabic: قيراط qīrāṭ "carat" < Ancient Greek: κεράτιον "carob seed" (cf. Italian carato)
• recluta, "recruit", French recrute
• regaliz(a), "liquorice", Late Latin liquiritia
• roble, "oak", Latin robur, "stiff"
• silo, "silo", Latin sirus from Greek siros, "pit for storing grain"
• surco, "groove, furrow", Latin sulcus
• taladro, "drill", Latin tarātrum < Celtic tarātron
• temblar, "tremble", Latin tremulāre
• templar, "atmosphere, warm up", Latin temperō"
• tiniebla(s), "darkness", Latin tenebrae

Yeísmo [edit]

Documents from equally early on equally the 15th century show occasional evidence of sporadic confusion between the phoneme /ʝ/ (generally spelled ⟨y⟩) and the palatal lateral /ʎ/ (spelled ⟨ll⟩). The distinction is maintained in spelling, only in most dialects of Modern Spanish, the two accept merged into the aforementioned, non-lateral palatal sound. Thus, for example, most Spanish-speakers have the same pronunciation for haya (from the verb haber) every bit for halla (from hallar). The phonemic merger is chosen yeísmo, based on one name for the letter of the alphabet ⟨y⟩.^{[60] [61] [62]}

Yeismo is a trait of the Andalusian dialect, among others. Since more than half of the early settlers of Castilian America came from Andalusia,^{[63] [64] [65]} nigh Spanish-speaking regions of the Americas have yeísmo, merely there are pockets in which the sounds are all the same distinguished. Native-speakers of neighboring languages, such as Galician, Astur-Leonese, Basque, Aragonese, Occitan and Catalan, usually practice not characteristic yeísmo in their Spanish since those languages retain the /ʎ/ phoneme.

A related trait that has also been documented sporadically for several hundred years is rehilamiento (literally "whizzing"), the pronunciation of /ʝ/ equally a sibilant fricative [ʒ] or even an affricate [dʒ], which is common amid non-native Spanish speakers as well. The current pronunciation varies greatly depending on the geographical dialect and sociolect (with [dʒ], especially, stigmatized except at the beginning of a word). Rioplatense Spanish (of Argentina and Uruguay) is particularly known for the pronunciation [ʒ] of both /ʝ/ and original /ʎ/. A further development, the unvoiced pronunciation [ʃ], during the second one-half of the twentieth century came to characterize the oral communication of "most younger residents of Buenos Aires" and continues to spread throughout Argentina.^[66]

See also [edit]

• Cantar de Mio Cid
• Hispano-Celtic languages
• Iberian language
• Iberian Romance languages
• Influences on the Spanish language
• List of Spanish words of Indigenous American Indian origin
• List of Spanish words of Philippine origin
• List of English words of Castilian origin
• Romance languages
• Castilian dialects and varieties
• Spanish phonology
• Quondam Spanish language
• Paleohispanic languages
• Eye Spanish
• Vulgar Latin
• Rafael Lapesa

References [edit]

1. ^ Penny (2002:17–290)
2. ^ Penny (2002:19–22)
3. ^ Penny (2002:19–20)
4. ^ Penny (2002:twenty–21)
5. ^ Penny (2002:22–26)
6. ^ Penny (2002:23)
7. ^ ^{a b} Navarro Tomás (1982), §§ninety-91.
8. ^ Penny (2002:11–15)
9. ^ Ostler (2005:331–334)
10. ^ Penny (2002:15)
11. ^ Lapesa (1981:162)
12. ^ Penny (2002:15–16)
13. ^ Lapesa (1981:235–248)
14. ^ Lapesa (1981:288–290)
15. ^ Lapesa (1981:419–420)
16. ^ "The Spanish Language | Rosetta Stone®". Rosetta Rock . Retrieved ii June 2021.
17. ^ Stavans, Ilan (2017-04-26). "The Spanish Linguistic communication in Latin America since Independence". Oxford Research Encyclopedia of Latin American History. doi:10.1093/acrefore/9780199366439.013.371. ISBN978-0-19-936643-9 . Retrieved 2 June 2021.
18. ^ Ostler (2005:335–347)
19. ^ Penny (2002:21–24)
20. ^ Lapesa (1981:524–534)
21. ^ Corominas (1973:340)
22. ^ Erichsen (2018)
23. ^ Penny (2002:256)
24. ^ Penny (2002:91–92)
25. ^ Penny (2002:260–262)
26. ^ Macpherson, I. R. (1980). Spanish phonology. Manchester: Manchester University Press. p. 93. ISBN0719007887.
27. ^ "(DOC) Impact of Arabic on Castilian | Hamid Hussain - Academia.edu".
28. ^ Quintana, Lucía; Mora, Juan Pablo (2002). "Enseñanza del acervo léxico árabe de la lengua española" (PDF). ASELE. Actas XIII: 705. : "El léxico español de procedencia árabe es muy abundante: se ha señalado que constituye, aproximadamente, un 8% del vocabulario total"
29. ^ Penny (2002:271)
30. ^ Penny (2002:272–275, 279–281)
31. ^ Penny (2002:281–284)
32. ^ Penny (2002:275–277)
33. ^ Penny (2002:277–279)
34. ^ Lathrop (2003:10)
35. ^ Lloyd (1987:113)
36. ^ Penny (2002:50–51)
37. ^ Most Spanish nouns and adjectives are thought to take evolved from the accusative-case forms of their Latin source words; thus words that appear in dictionaries in their nominative forms (humerus, littera, etc.) are shown here with the accusative final -m (humerum, litteram, etc.)
38. ^ Lathrop (2003:85–87)
39. ^ Lloyd (1987:232–237)
40. ^ Lathrop (2003:82–85)
41. ^ Penny (2002:67–71)
42. ^ Walsh (1991)
43. ^ Cravens (2002:17–27)
44. ^ Lathrop (2003:61–63)
45. ^ Lloyd (1987:122)
46. ^ Penny (2002:44)
47. ^ Lapesa (1981:390)
48. ^ Lathrop (2003:85 and 94)
49. ^ Lloyd (1987:253 and 347)
50. ^ Penny (2002:61 and 78)
51. ^ The confusion of Latin /b/ and /5/ in Espana is demonstrated by an often-cited pun in Latin, "Beati Hispani quibus vivere bibere est" [Blessed (are the) Spaniards, for whom to alive is to drink], with variants such as "Beati Hispani, dum bibere dicunt vivere". The saying seems to exist not actually from Roman times but from the Middle Ages or even the Renaissance. Run across Nihil Novum sub Sole.
52. ^ Lloyd (1987:239)
53. ^ Lathrop (2003:78–79)
54. ^ Lloyd (1987:212–223)
55. ^ Penny (2002:90)
56. ^ Lapesa (1981:163)
57. ^ Penny (2002:86)
58. ^ Lloyd (1987:328–344)
59. ^ Penny (2002:86–ninety)
60. ^ Hammond (2001)
61. ^ Lloyd (1987:344–347)
62. ^ Penny (2002:93)
63. ^ Boyd-Bowman (1964)
64. ^ Penny (2002:25–26)
65. ^ Lapesa (1981:565–566)
66. ^ Lipski (1994:170)

Sources [edit]

• Boyd-Bowman, Peter (1964), Índice geobiográfico de cuarenta mil pobladores españoles de América en el siglo XVI (Vol. I), Bogotá: Instituto Caro y Cuervo
• Corominas, Joan (1973), Breve diccionario etimológico de la lengua castellana, Madrid: Gredos
• Cravens, Thomas D. (2002), Comparative Historical Dialectology: Italo-Romance clues to Hispano-Romance sound change, Amsterdam: John Benjamins
• Erichsen, Gerald (January 27, 2018), "Languages of Spain Non Express to Spanish: Spanish is one of four official languages", ThoughtCo
• Hammond, Robert M. (2001), The Sounds of Spanish: Analysis and Awarding (with Special Reference to American English language), Somerville, Massachusetts: Cascadilla Press, ISBN1-57473-018-v
• Lapesa, Rafael (1981) [1942], Historia de la lengua española (9th ed.), Madrid: Gredos, ISBN84-249-0072-3
• Lathrop, Thomas A. (2003), The Development of Castilian, Newark, Delaware: Juan de la Cuesta, ISBNi-58977-014-5
• Lipski, John M. (1994), Latin American Castilian, London: Longman
• Lloyd, Paul One thousand. (1987), From Latin to Spanish, Philadelphia: American Philosophical Club (Memoirs, Vol. 173), ISBN0-87169-173-6
• Navarro Tomás, Tomás (1982) [1918], Manual de pronunciación española (21st ed.), Madrid: Concejo Superior de Investigaciones Científicas, ISBN84-00-03462-7
• Ostler, Nicholas (2005), Empires of the Discussion: A Language History of the Globe , New York: HarperCollins, ISBN0-06-621086-0
• Penny, Ralph (2002), A History of the Spanish Language, Cambridge: Cambridge University Printing, ISBN978-0-521-01184-6
• Spaulding, Robert Kilburn (1971) [1943], How Castilian Grew, Berkeley: University of California Press, ISBN0-520-01193-7
• Walsh, Thomas J. (1991), "The Demise of Lenition as a Productive Phonological Process in Hispano-Romance", in Harris-Northall, Ray; Cravens, Thomas D. (eds.), Linguistic Studies in Medieval Castilian, Madison: Hispanic Seminary of Medieval Studies, pp. 149–163

External links [edit]

• An explanation of the development of Medieval Spanish sibilants in Castile and Andalusia.
• A recording of the sibilants, every bit they would take been pronounced in medieval Spanish.
• A History of the Spanish language (sample from the second edition, 2002), past Ralph Penny
• Tesoro de los diccionarios históricos de la lengua española (in Castilian)
• Linguistic Time Car Archived 2011-12-03 at the Wayback Auto Check the historic evolution of Latin words to modern Spanish.

beforgeddiaz.blogspot.com

Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_the_Spanish_language